{"id":3848,"date":"2025-04-02T15:32:38","date_gmt":"2025-04-02T15:32:38","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/martinemussies.nl\/web\/?p=3848"},"modified":"2025-04-02T15:39:22","modified_gmt":"2025-04-02T15:39:22","slug":"psychoactive-substances-and-mermaid-sightings-at-sea","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/martinemussies.nl\/web\/psychoactive-substances-and-mermaid-sightings-at-sea\/","title":{"rendered":"Psychoactive substances and mermaid sightings at sea"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

I\u2019m excited to share my latest article, published in Hektoen International: A Journal of Medical Humanities<\/a>. This piece brings together two of my autistic<\/a> special interests – mermaids<\/a> and neuro(psycho)logy<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Since the earliest long-term sea voyages, from the Age of Exploration to the eighteenth century, sailors have been known to report seeing mermaids\u2014enigmatic creatures with human-like upper bodies and fish-like tails. These accounts have long been a subject of fascination and speculation. Could these sightings have been influenced by the use of psychoactive substances?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Historical context of mermaid sightings<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

The notion of mermaids existed in folklore long before European sailors began to report sightings of them. Notable figures, including Christopher Columbus (1493), Henry Hudson (1608), and Benjamin Franklin (1736, 1769), documented encounters with mermaid-like creatures. Columbus, for instance, reported three mermaids off the coast of the Dominican Republic, noting that they were \u201cnot as beautiful as they are painted.\u201d1<\/sup> Henry Hudson\u2019s crew described a mermaid with \u201ca woman\u2019s torso and the tail of a dolphin,\u201d while Franklin mentioned sightings off Bermuda and Brest, which gained traction in contemporary publications.2<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

These sightings reflect the period\u2019s fascination with the unknown, shaped by limited zoological knowledge and the popularity of wonders in scientific discourse. The concept of mermaids played into Enlightenment-era debates on the origins of humanity, with some naturalists speculating on aquatic human ancestors.3<\/sup> Today, historians largely agree that many of these reports likely described marine mammals such as manatees and dugongs, whose features could be mistaken for humanoid figures, particularly under the influence of psychoactive substances.4<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Psychoactive substances on ships<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Alcohol was an essential part of daily life aboard European ships. The British Royal Navy issued daily rations of beer, wine, or rum to sailors, both as a source of sustenance and a means to prevent waterborne illnesses.5<\/sup> Strong spirits such as rum and gin were often consumed in excess, particularly during periods of stress or monotony. Chronic alcohol consumption has well-documented effects on cognition and perception, with high doses leading to hallucinations and sensory distortions.6<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Opium, used medicinally for pain relief and sedation, was widely available on ships through European trade networks, particularly via the Dutch East India Company (VOC).7<\/sup> Opium\u2019s effects on neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin induce dream-like states, which, combined with sensory deprivation at sea, could have led to hallucinatory experiences. Some sailors may have consumed opium recreationally, seeking respite from the harsh conditions of maritime life.8<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tobacco, introduced to Europe in the sixteenth century, was commonly smoked or chewed by sailors. Nicotine stimulates dopamine release and, in high doses, can cause hallucinations and cognitive distortions.9<\/sup> The interaction of nicotine with alcohol and opium may have intensified psychoactive effects, further altering perception. Combined with the monotonous sensory input at sea\u2014where sailors stared at the vast ocean for months\u2014these substances could have heightened suggestibility and perceptional distortions. The neurological effects of prolonged substance use, including delirium tremens (caused by alcohol withdrawal), further contribute to this theory.10<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The \u201cSet and Setting\u201d of sailors<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

The experiences of sailors at sea were profoundly shaped by both their psychological state and the environmental conditions in which they lived. Norman Zinberg\u2019s Drug, Set, and Setting<\/em> model provides a useful framework for understanding how these factors influenced drug-induced hallucinations. According to Zinberg, the effects of a substance are not solely determined by its pharmacological properties but are also shaped by the user\u2019s mental state\u2014the \u201cset\u201d\u2014and the broader circumstances in which the drug is consumed\u2014the \u201csetting.\u201d11<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The psychological strain on sailors was immense. They endured prolonged periods of isolation, harsh discipline, and the ever-present threat of death. Their journeys often lasted months, or even years, with little opportunity for respite. The combination of chronic stress, exhaustion, and sleep deprivation left them highly vulnerable to hallucinations and perceptual distortions.12<\/sup> Moreover, sailors\u2019 existing beliefs and superstitions played a significant role in shaping how they interpreted their experiences. Tales of sea monsters and mermaids were widespread in maritime folklore, and many sailors embarked on voyages already convinced of their existence. This predisposition likely heightened their suggestibility, making them more prone to interpreting ambiguous visual stimuli as evidence of these mythical beings.13<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Beyond individual psychology, the physical and social environment of life at sea further contributed to these hallucinations. The vast, featureless expanse of the ocean, combined with long stretches of sensory monotony, created conditions ripe for perceptual distortions. Extended night watches and the dim, flickering light of lanterns could make it difficult to distinguish reality from illusion, particularly when compounded by intoxication. In this setting, a half-seen shadow on the waves or the fleeting glimpse of a marine creature could easily be misinterpreted as a mermaid. Furthermore, the social dynamics of maritime life reinforced these interpretations. Storytelling was an essential part of shipboard culture, and exaggerated or misremembered sightings were shared and embellished among crew members. Over time, these narratives became embedded in collective memory, further solidifying the belief in mermaids.14<\/sup> By considering the interplay between sailors\u2019 mental states and their extreme environment, it becomes clear how the combination of psychoactive substances, stress, and folklore could have given rise to their vivid accounts of mermaid sightings.15<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Misinterpretations and memory<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Pareidolia\u2014the tendency to perceive meaningful patterns in vague stimuli\u2014may explain why sailors saw human features in marine animals. Combined with the mind-altering effects of the lack of nutrition,16<\/sup> the abundance of alcohol,17<\/sup> and the use of psychoactive plants,18<\/sup> this psychological tendency could have led to mistaken identifications. Historical and zoological studies suggest that many mermaid sightings were actually manatees and dugongs. These creatures have five-fingered bones in their flippers and can turn their heads in a way that mimics human movement, reinforcing the illusion of a mermaid.19-21<\/sup> Given the prolonged nature of sea voyages,22<\/sup> combined with the toxic effects of stimulants23<\/sup> and the deprivation of essential nutrients, it is likely that these factors contributed significantly to the sailors\u2019 misidentifications, enhancing the illusion of mermaids.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

<\/a>Alcohol, opium, and tobacco, in combination with psychological and environmental stressors, have likely contributed to hallucinatory mermaid sightings. While mermaid sightings are often dismissed as folklore, they provide insight into the complex interplay between human physiology, cultural narratives, and the limits of perception. Future research could explore historical ship logs for further evidence of hallucinations among sailors and the role of nutritional deficiencies in cognitive distortions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

References<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
    \n
  1. Brito, Cristina. \u201cOn mermaids and manatees.\u201d From nature to science<\/em> (2013): 12-22.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  2. Scribner, Vaughn. \u201c\u2018Such monsters do exist in nature\u2019: mermaids, tritons, and the science of wonder in eighteenth-century Europe.\u201d Itinerario<\/em> 41, no. 3 (2017): 507-538.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  3. Farnell, David, and Rute Noiva. \u201cMonstrous Beauty, Monstrous Strength: The Case of the Mermaid.\u201d In Re-visiting Female Evil<\/em>, pp. 53-81. Brill, 2017.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  4. Benwall, Gwen and Arthur Waugh. Sea Enchantress: The Tale of the Mermaid and Her Kin<\/em>. New York: Hutchison, 1961.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  5. Kopperman, Paul E. \u201c\u2018The Cheapest Pay\u2019: Alcohol Abuse in the Eighteenth-Century British Army.\u201d Journal of Military History<\/em> 60 (1996): 445-470.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  6. Koob, George F. \u201cA role for GABA mechanisms in the motivational effects of alcohol.\u201d Biochemical pharmacology<\/em> 68, no. 8 (2004): 1515-1525.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  7. Trocki, Carl. Opium, empire and the global political economy: A study of the Asian opium trade 1750-1950<\/em>. Routledge, 2012.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  8. Gal, Hagar. \u201cSinking in a Sea of Poppies: How the English Lost the Opium Trade to the Scottish.\u201d Herodotus Undergraduate History Journal<\/em> 30 (2020): 16-38.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  9. Gately, Iain. Tobacco: a cultural history of how an exotic plant seduced civilization<\/em>. Open Road+ Grove\/Atlantic, 2007.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  10. Ruuska, Arto. \u201cConsequences and behaviour problematised: The establishment of alcohol misuse as an object of empirical inquiry in late 18th-and early 19th-century European medicine.\u201d Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs<\/em> 30, no. 1-2 (2013): 13-32.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  11. Zinberg, N.E. Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use<\/em>. Yale University Press, 1986.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  12. De Zwart, Pim. Globalization and the Colonial Origins of the Great Divergence: intercontinental trade and living standards in the Dutch East India Company\u2019s commercial empire, c. 1600-1800<\/em>. Vol. 11. Brill, 2016.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  13. Knight, Lara. \u201cMermaids and their cultural significance in literature and folklore.\u201d PhD diss., University of Georgia, 2005.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  14. Bown, Stephen R. Merchant Kings: When Companies Ruled the World, 1600\u20131900<\/em>. Macmillan, 2010.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  15. Delfs, Tobias. \u201c\u2018What shall become of the mission when we have such incompetent missionaries there?\u2019: Drunkenness and mission in eighteenth-century Danish East India.\u201d In A History of Alcohol and Drugs in Modern South Asia<\/em>, pp. 65-88. Routledge, 2014.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  16. Gratzer, Walter. Terrors of the table: the curious history of nutrition<\/em>. Oxford University Press, USA, 2005.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  17. Holt, Mack P., ed. Alcohol: A social and cultural history<\/em>. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  18. Merlin, Mark D. \u201cArchaeological evidence for the tradition of psychoactive plant use in the old world.\u201d Economic Botany<\/em> 57, no. 3 (2003): 295-323.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  19. Mussies, Martine. \u201cFrankenstein and The Lure: Border Crossing Creatures through a Feminist Lens.\u201d Foundation<\/em> 47, no. 130 (2018): 47-58.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  20. Mussies, Martine. \u201cA mermaid\u2019s song in distortion: The recreation of ancient myth by a medieval metal band.\u201d Metal Music Studies<\/em> 5, no. 1 (2019): 115-125.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  21. Mussies, Martine. \u201cToxic Ableism and Gothic Nostalgia in Fanfiction About Mermaids.\u201d In Gothic Nostalgia: The Uses of Toxic Memory in 21st Century Popular Culture<\/em>, pp. 225-243. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2024.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  22. Zuhdi, Susanto. \u201cShipping routes and spice trade in Southeast Sulawesi in the 17th and 18th century.\u201d Journal of Maritime Studies and National Integration<\/em> 2, no. 1 (2018): 31-44.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  23. Schellekens, A.F.A., M. Belgers, W. van den Brink, M.S. van Noorden, A. Batalla, J. Veraart, and J.J. Luykx. \u201cIntoxicaties met psychostimulerende middelen.\u201d In Acute psychiatrie<\/em>, pp. 237-245. Houten: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum, 2022.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    Image: \u201cMermaid of Boeroe\u201d (Buru) and sea creatures of the Maldives. Line drawing by [Hendrick van?] Balen, engraving by Ottomar Elliger Junior, 1726. Via Wikimedia.<\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    I\u2019m excited to share my latest article, published in Hektoen International: A Journal of Medical Humanities. This piece brings together two of my autistic special interests – mermaids and neuro(psycho)logy.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":3849,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[76,70],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-3848","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-psychology","category-mermaids"],"aioseo_notices":[],"yoast_head":"\nPsychoactive substances and mermaid sightings at sea » Martine Mussies<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Psychoactive substances and mermaid sightings at sea, Hektoen International, Journal of Medical Humanities, neurology, drugs, alcohol, tobacco\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, 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